- 1519-1556: Charles V
- 1556-1598: The reign of Philip II
- 1568: The Revolt of the Netherlands Begins
- 1588: Defeat of the Spanish Armada
- 1509-1547: Henry VIII
- 1598: Edict of Nantes
- 1643-1715: Louis XIV
- 1649-1660: The Puritan Republic
- 1688: The Glorious Revolution
- 1543: Nicolas Copernicus publishes de Revolutionibus
- 1600: William Gilbert publishes Concerning the Magnet
- 1628: William Harvey, On the Motion of the Heart and Blood
- 1632: Galileo: Concerning the Two Chief World Systems
- 1662: The Royal Society is founded.
- 1687: Newton's Principia mathematica
- Peter the Great of Russia: 1672-1725; r. 1682-1725
- Catherine the Great of Russia: 1729-96; r. 1762-1796
- Frederick the Great of Prussia: 1712-86; r. 1740-86
- Joseph II of Austria: 1741-90; r. 1765-90
- Napoleon I of France: 1769-1821; r. 1799-1815
- 1690: Locke's Second Treatise
- 1748: Montesquieu's Spirit of the Laws
- 1762: Rousseau's The Social Contract
- 1782: Kant's Critique of Pure Reason
- 1713: Treaty of Utrecht ends the War of the Spanish Succession
- 1740-1748: The War of the Austrian Succession
- 1756-1763: The Seven Years War
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